Biodegradable Polymers: A Novel Stride in Drug Delivery and Therapeutics
Gundawar Ravi1*, Padmini Iriventi 2, Riyaz Ali M. Osmani3
1Department of Pharmaceutical Quality Assurance, Manipal College of Pharmaceutical Sciences,
Manipal Academy of Higher Education, Manipal - 576104, Karnataka, India.
2Department of Pharmaceutics, MLR Institute of Pharmacy, Hyderabad - 500043, TS, India.
3Department of Pharmaceutics, JSS College of Pharmacy, JSS Academy of Higher Education and Research (JSSAHER), Mysuru - 570015, Karnataka, India.
*Corresponding Author E-mail: gundawar.ravi@manipal.edu
ABSTRACT:
Global consumption and natural resistance to degradation have increased in the case of plastic and polymers. Their accumulation in the environment is of increasing concern. Currently available plastics are mostly produced from petrochemical products, but there is a growing demand for eco-friendly polymers. The use of bio-based polymers, which are produced from renewable resources, and biodegradable polymers, which are degraded in the environment, will lead to a more sustainable society and help us solve global environmental and waste management problems. Biodegradable materials are used in packaging, agriculture, medicine, and other areas. In recent years there has been an increase in interest in biodegradable polymers. The following review presents an overview of the different biodegradable polymers that are currently being used and their properties, as well as new developments in their synthesis and applications in drug delivery.
KEYWORDS: Drug delivery, Polymers, Biodegradable polymers, Composites, Controlled release.
INTRODUCTION:
In the last century, Synthetic plastic was considered the material of the future whereas at present it is one of the chief ecological problem1. The major drawbacksof these are the prolonged process of decomposition and production associated with raw materials that are non-renewable2. In order to overcome this problem, an alternative possibility is the use of biodegradable polymers that areobtained from sources that are renewable in nature3,4. It also decreases environmental problems associated with environment5,6. Biodegradable polymeric materials (BPMs) represent a growing field7. Advantages associated with biodegradable polymers are low toxicity, compatibility with tissue, biodegradability, sustained release, targeted delivery methods etc8,9.
Starch, chitosan, cellulose derivatives, chitin, etc are natural raw materials available. They convert into carbon dioxide and water primarily when they come in contact with water, soil and microorganism.Continuous reproduction is one of the main advantages of these polymers8. By producing polymers related to biodegradation, biodegradable synthetic plastics can be produced. Eg: copolyesters based on aliphatic diols, polyesters and polyesteramides etc.
One more process for the creation of these polymers is by developing composites associated with natural polymers like starch, cellulose, chitosan etc. Choosing the right ratio of components is very important that determining the operational properties of the obtained PM approach to the properties of the original conventional polymers10,11.
Certain material-specific properties are present for each biopolymer like oxygen permeability (barrier properties)12. These are related to the biopolymer’s choice. Biopolymers have several economic and environmental advantages like replacing the polyethylene used in coated papers with a biopolymer that decreases plastic wastes occurring in compost13,14. Biodegradable polymers and biopolymers can be produced by a wide variety of technologies, both from renewable resources of animal or plant origin and from fossil resources. They can also be obtained from plant and vegetableextracts, mineral oils etc.15
Biodegradable polymers are similar in terms of their chemical structure to conventional thermoplastics16,17. They can be processed using standard polymer processing methods such as film extrusion, injection molding and blow moulding18,19. While biodegradable polymers may be similar to petrochemical-based thermoplastics in terms of their structure, their chemical structure imbues them with technical properties that make them perform in different ways20. For example, starch blends can produce a film with better moisture barrier protection and higher clarity than some conventional plastics21. PLA has a high-watervapor transmission rate, which is beneficial for fresh food applications where it is important that the water vapor escapes quickly from the packaging. PLA also reduces fogging on the lid of the packaging22,23.
In the present article, an attempt has been made to review the latest research on the most used biodegradable polymers, to examine their application and decrease/eliminate the usage of synthetic plastics that is hazardous to the environment.
Natural Biodegradable Polymers:
Chitin:
It is a natural nitrogen-containingpolysaccharide which is unbranched and has a linear conformation of macromolecules occurring due to intra- and intermolecular hydrogen bonds24. It is a firmradiant material25. Naturally, it occurs in shells of sea crabs, lobsters etc, in zooplankton, and in the wings of insects26. It is present as a complex along with other polysaccharides and proteins (not contained in pure form). When dissolved in concentrated solutions of hydrochloric, sulfuric, and formic acids, chitin is depolymerized fragmentarily, and when heated in these solutions, it hydrolyzes with destruction26. The world production of chitin and its derivatives is about 3000 tons per year27. The chemical structure of chitin is presented in Figure 1.
Figure 1: Structure of chitin
Chitosan:
It is chemically known as α-(1-4)2-amino 2-deoxy β-D glucan. Figure 2 consists of the chemical structure of chitosan. It is obtained after the deacetylation of chitin, which is seen in crustacean shells. The extent of deacetylation and chemical alteration allows chitosan to form different self-assemblies and vesicles.
Figure 2: Chemical Structure of chitosan
It is a natural polymer that occurs in the tissue of plantsas granules, from where it is recovered easily in bulk portions28.Sources are wheat, maize, potatoes etc. Melting and deforming of starchthermoplastically is done29. The resulting material is convenient for traditional plastic forming processes such as extruding, injection moulding30 etc.Itis unique among carbohydrates as itoccurs naturally as discrete granules. Due to the hydroxyl groups on the granule surface, they exhibit hydrophilic properties and strong intermolecular association via hydrogen bonding31. Compared to thermal decomposition temperature melting point of native starch is high.Three main families of starch polymer can be used: pure starch modified starch and fermented starch polymers32-34. The chemical structure of starch is shown in Figure 3 below.
Figure 3: Chemical structure of starch
Polyglutamic Acid (PGA):
It's a rare anionic polymer emulsion that consists of an extremely thick homo polyamide of D-and L-glutamic acid units along with an extracellular polymer that's fully biodegradable and nontoxic to humans35. PGA is synthesized by several microorganisms; For marketable proffers, Bacillus species (B. licheniformis andB. subtilis) are generally used to produce PGA36. The structure of PGA is shown in Figure 4.
Figure 4: Structure of polyglutamic acid
Synthetic Biodegradable Polymers:
The outline of synthetic biodegradable polymers counting an examination and bracket of biodegradable polymers along with their chemical structure, parcels and processing performance.
Poly(e-caprolactone) (PCL):
The ring–opening polymerization of I- caprolactone gives rise to a semi-crystalline polymer that hasa melting point of 59-64oC and a glass transition temperature of – 60oC. It is considered to be compatible with tissue37. The structure of PCL is depicted in Figure 5 and the Advantages and disadvantages of different methods used in polycaprolactone synthesis are tabulated in Table 1.
Figure 5: Structure of poly(e-caprolactone)
Table1: Advantages and disadvantages of different methods used in polycaprolactone synthesis
|
Method |
Advantages |
Disadvantages |
Ref. |
|
Conventional method |
Simple to set up |
Temperature fluctuations |
38,39 |
|
Microwave irradiation |
Reaction rate enhancement Energy savings Direct heating High-temperature homogeneity |
Radiations may denature the enzymes |
40 |
|
Ultrasonication |
The diffusion rate is high |
Chances affecting immobilization of enzymes |
41 |
|
Superficial CO2 |
Green method, no involvement of organic solvents |
The low solubility of polymers |
42 |
Polyglycolide:
Polyglycolides (PGAs), the first synthetic biodegradable polymers, are prepared from the polymerization of glycolic acids43. They are synthesized basically to be used as sutures for medical applications. Now a days they have several applications such as tissue engineering, scaffolds, drug delivery, and textile technologies44. These thermoplastic resins have a high rate of degradation, where PGA is broken down by hydrolysis into its respective acids and alcohols. They tend to lose mechanical strength rapidly, over a period of 2–4 weeks after implantation45. A few PGAs with various polymerization techniques and monomers are listed in Table 2.
Table 2: Various methods for polyglycolide synthesis
|
Monomer |
Method |
Conditions |
References |
|
Sodium chloroacetate |
Solid-state polycondensation |
160–180°C |
46 |
|
Glycolic acid |
Melt polycondensation |
220–230°C; catalyst: tin dichloride dehydrate |
47 |
|
Glycolic acid |
Melt–solid ring-opening polymerization |
170°C; catalyst: SnCl2·2H2O and initiator: 1-dodecanol |
48 |
|
Glycolic acid |
Melt polycondensation |
190°C ; catalyst: zinc acetate dehydrate, |
49 |
|
Glycolide |
Anionic ring-opening polymerization |
17OoC for 2 h followed by 230°C for 0.5 h; catalyst: potassium hydroxide/potassium carbonate |
50 |
|
Diglycolide |
Ring-opening polymerization |
130–150°C; catalyst: diphenyl bismuth bromide |
51 |
|
Glycolide |
Cationic ring-opening polymerization |
100°C; catalyst: Montmorillonite clay |
52 |
Polyanhydrides:
They are useful biodegradable polymers that are used as carriers of drugs to various tissues, such as the brain, bone, blood vessels, and eyes53,54. The main chain of polyanhydrides is composed of either aliphatic or aromatic groups connected by a highly labile anhydride linkage55. Recently, the use of polyanhydrides for sustained delivery of DNA for the potential to enhance long-term gene therapy has been reported56,57. The structure of anhydride is presented in Figure 6.
Figure 6: Structure of anhydride
Polystyrene:
For the creation of composites based on polystyrene which is biodegradable in nature, Starch is generally used58. Polystyrene and maleic anhydride copolymers were proposed in order to improve polymer component compatibility. Their range is small, and the cost is 2-3 times higher compared to large-capacity, nonbiodegradable polymers59. Other polymers are Polyurethanes (PU), Polyphosphazene, Polyolefins (Polyethylene and Polypropylene) etc. The chemical structure of polystyrene is presented in Figure 7.
Figure 7: Structure of polystyrene
Biodegradable Combination Polymers:
Monomers with numerous degradable functionalities are present in combination polymers. These combinations provide new biomaterials having complex functionalities60. They have aunique physicochemical property. In recent times, several new polymers have been developed in order to produce novel biomaterials. Poly(ester ether)sand Poly(amide ester)s are a few of them. The most widely studied polymer in this category is poly(β-amino esters)61. A group of polymers in this category has been synthesized and screened for biomedical applications62. In DNA delivery positively charged amide bonds of this polymer family are used. They are also used in tissue engineering applications. Various polymers are Polyesters, polyesteramides63 etc.
Production of delivery devices using biodegradable polymers:
For micro-/nano- delivery device preparation, many ways are available. Choosing the approx. a method is dependent on certain factors like the nature of the loaded drugs/biomolecules, physicochemical characteristics of the polymer, therapy use and duration64,65. The techniques used for drugs and biomolecule encapsulationare discussed below.
1. Ionic gelation method:
This is an easy and low-cost method. Here process parameters optimization is a challenging task because of interrelation66. This method is used to prepare micro-/nano formulations like microparticles, microcapsules,and nanoparticles that are intended for controlled/sustained release67. Solutions of alginates, carboxymethyl cellulose, and chitosan (polyelectrolyte biopolymers) are added dropwise to solutions containing other counterions by stirring continuously68. The counter ions are mostly CaCl2, BaCl2, MgCl2, tripolyphosphate, pyrophosphate etc. The requiredcontrolled release of active ingredients occurs from the polymer matrix due to electrostatic interaction between oppositely charged species due to which a cross-linked matrix is formed69.
2. Spray drying:
This methodconsists of W/O/W emulsion preparation that is by mixing the aqueous phase (dispersion of drug to be entrapped) and organic solvent phase (solvents used to dissolve the polymer), followed by evaporation and atomization of obtained emulsion in an inert gas stream70,71. This method is very rapid, scalable easily, and gives particles of narrow size distribution havinggood encapsulation efficiency72. At presentnano spray drying technology has gained a lot of popularity73.
3. Coacervation (phase separation):
In this method,a super-dense liquid phase is obtained from aqueous macromolecular drug (proteins and peptides) dispersion in a polymer solution of organic solvent74. This polymer solvent can be slowly removed by adding an organic non-solvent with continuous agitation. This results in the separation of phases and coacervate droplets (microspheres) are formed in whichthe drug is encapsulated75. If the concentration of polymer is very high it may lead to phase separation quickly. This causes an incomplete coating on the drug substance. Since no emulsion stabilizer is used in this method, the agglomeration problem is usually seen76.
4. Solvent evaporation method:
This is mostly used for microparticle/nanoparticle preparation using polymers (PLGA, PLA, Poly (β-caprolactone) (PCL), ethyl cellulose, etc) that are biodegradable in nature77. First, a polymer solution in a volatile solvent like chloroform etc is prepared and the drug is incorporated into it. This is then included in an aqueous phase which contains an emulsifying agent78,79. The whole system is stirred continuously and finally,an oil in water (o/w) emulsion is formed. From the obtained emulsion the organic solvent is evaporated which gives asuspension with particles80. The typeand concentration of stabilizer, temperature speed of stirring, etc determines the size of particles prepared81. The main drawback of this method is it can be used only for lipid-soluble drugs. Also, scale-up is difficult.
5. Salting out method:
At first a polymer solution in a water-miscible solvent (e.g., acetone). This is emulsified in an aqueous phase that already has salting out agents like calcium chloride, sucrose etc82. The prepared emulsion is then dilutedusing adequate aqueous solution leading to solvent movement into the aqueous phase83. This forms nanospheres. Since this process does not need high temperature, it can be used for heat-sensitive materials84. It has good efficiency and easy scale-up possibility85. This process is suitable only for lipophilic drugs and prepared nanoparticles need to be washedseveral times86.
Patents on Biodegradable Polymers:
Table 3: Various Patents on Biodegradable Polymers
|
Application No. |
Inventor Name |
Title of the Patent |
Year |
Ref. |
|
CA2640170A1 |
Seppala J et.al., |
New Biodegradable Polymers |
2007 |
87 |
|
2007 |
88 |
|||
|
2002 |
89 |
|||
|
Biodegradable polymers |
2011 |
90 |
||
|
2001 |
91 |
|||
|
Biodegradable polymer-based biocomposites with tailored properties and method of making those |
2016 |
92 |
||
|
Method for controlling decomposition of biodegradable polymers |
2013 |
93 |
||
|
2003 |
94 |
CONCLUSION:
Biodegradable polymers have potential significancein the field of biomedicine. They have applications in several fields and have accomplished 50 years in society. In this article, a detailed explanation regarding applications in various fields like medicine, biotechnology, bioengineering, tissue engineering, controlled drug delivery, gene delivery, medical implants and devices, cosmetics, nanotechnology,etc are discussed and explained. An increase in their longevity has expanded their applications in medical implants and devices, depots, tissue augmentation, and so on. But it also has certain disadvantagesand long-term exposure associated with toxicity. In total, in the last 20 years, biodegradable polymers have seen a significant improvement.These polymers’ use has increased withnovel polymers hitting the market their use is growing continuously. They are known as the “green materials” that replacea majority of the today-usedconventional polymers.
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Received on 12.03.2022 Modified on 05.07.2022
Accepted on 17.10.2022 © RJPT All right reserved
Research J. Pharm. and Tech 2023; 16(6):3047-3053.
DOI: 10.52711/0974-360X.2023.00502